PHYSICAL EDUCATION (B.A.2ND SEMESTER)

UNIT-I

ETHICS AND VALUE IN SPORTS

Ethics in sport requires four key virtues: fairness, integrity, responsibility, and respect. All athletes and coaches must follow established rules and guidelines of their respective sport.

Sports ethics is also focused on equity in sport which should be an expression of human excellence. It has two dimensions:

(a) Institutional: Discrimination based on criteria other than performance must be rejected, rules must be applied uniformly and without resorting to arbitrary decisions;

(b) Personal: There is a moral obligation to abide by the rules, in accordance with the principles of fair play. It tries to ensure that sporting excellence must be an expression of human excellence and performance and results should emerge from the deserved and meritorious development of individual talent. The codes of sports ethics documented by the Olympic Committee and other international and national sports bodies, governments, sports federations and associations, sports sponsoring concerns and specialised research institutions provide a comprehensive view of sports ethics. These clearly suggest that sports ethics is a set of standards that guide the conduct of all concerned with sports — the sports persons, trainers, referees, managers, administrators, parents, teachers, journalists, doctors and pharmacists, nutritional expert, sports sponsoring concerns, top level sportspersons who serve as models and even spectators. These ethical standards are universal and objective and are not based on subjective guidelines. They have been proven over time.

need, importance of value education in sports

Values Education through Sport (VETS) programmes support active learning, complement cognitive skills and give students increasing amounts of responsibility, and enhance their level of concentration and participation.

VETS programmes are flexible and have a strong cross-curricular potential: they can reinforce existing curricula and can be streamed across different subjects, including physical education, civic and moral education, nutrition, biology, arts.

Sport can teach values such as fairness, teambuilding, equality, discipline, inclusion, perseverance and respect. Sport has the power to provide a universal framework for learning values, thus contributing to the development of soft skills needed for responsible citizenship.

values education therefore promotes tolerance and understanding above and beyond our political, cultural and religious differences, putting special emphasis on the defence of human rights, the protection of ethnic minorities and the most vulnerable groups, and the conservation of the environment.

What are sport values?

Sport can teach values such as fairness, teambuilding, equality, discipline, inclusion, perseverance and respect.

Sport has the power to provide a universal framework for learning values, thus contributing to the development of soft skills needed for responsible citizenship.

Ultimately, these programmes help students to transfer and put values into action outside the school environment, by getting engaged in their communities, making informed decisions, being sensitive and respecting the others and the environment. VETS contributes to the development of self-confidence, active and healthy lifestyle choices, and an understanding of rights, supporting the delicate transition to the independence of adulthood.

Values You Never Knew Sports Could Teach

These are values that sports can teach our youths, for life:

1. Commitment

To eleven-year-old Rizky, one of Football Plus’ soccer academy members, football is more than a sport to him. He looks forward to his weekly training sessions, and cites Roberto Firmino as his favourite athlete. One value he has learnt through these programmes is commitment, through the tough basics of attending the trainings and drills week in and week out. Rizky’s mother Sazlinah notes that upon joining the programme, Rizky has become more independent and confident in his self-esteem.

2. Teamwork

Teamwork is a valuable life skill they can learn through participating in sports. Being part of a team teaches youths to learn about camaraderie and build stronger bonds while training and playing as one. No point is scored in isolation, as they learn that every player needs to work together to accomplish their goals. One sport activity that builds teamwork is Dragon Boating organised by REACH Community Services. This sport requires every single rower to pull their weight and time their strokes together in careful precision. As the youths train together, they end up spending more time building and affirming each other positively. They will learn the importance of their role in the bigger team, and appreciating the relationships built through the sport.

3. Respect

One value that is highly important in sports today is the value of respect and sportsmanship. Through playing against other individuals and teams, the youths learn the value of respecting the rules and the players of the sport. This helps them to learn how to achieve their goals in the right way, teaching important life lessons about this value.

4. Confidence

Through their SWISH Youth Programme, Care Community Services Society aims to use Basketball as a channel to provide a safe space for youths to engage, grow in confidence and be empowered with character-building values and essential life skills. Coaches and volunteers also provide mentoring and guidance after the practice sessions to grow these youths in their self-confidence.

5. Leadership Skills

Every sporting team aims to win and achieve their goals, and this competitive environment brings out the desire and leadership potential of individuals. The sports field is a highly interactive platform that allows for communication, and thus many leadership opportunities or “moments” for young people to gain leadership experience. This might not be possible in other environments such as the classroom. They will learn to develop empathy for fellow team members, and learn to lead oneself and others. Some of the sports programmes youths even put their newly acquired leadership skills into practice, by giving back through planning and carrying out initiatives for the elderly and disadvantaged children in their community.

What can Values Education through Sport offer?

Values education makes us aware of the consequences of our actions on the planet and instils in us a respect for nature. We need to minimise health risks by encouraging the right attitudes and tackling health education from a dynamic, personal and collective point of view.

Discipline

Every sport requires some mental, physical and tactical discipline. Following rules, obeying the coach, practicing restraint, etc. are all forms of discipline children learn through sports. Discipline enables people to reach their full potential and realize their goals – a trait prevalent in all successful people.

Social skills

Kids playing sports learn to interact not only with kids their age, but also with the older and younger players on the team, the coach, sports authorities, etc. They also develop a sense of belonging and get an opportunity to make new friends. These communication and social skills help them in their future relationships and careers.

Patience

Practice plays a large role in improving performance in any sport or activity. ‘Practice makes you perfect’ but guess what practice and perfection need? Patience. Athletics teach kids how to keep practicing and be patient in order to see the results.

Perseverance

Just like patience and practice, sports also need perseverance and dedication. There are highs and lows during practice sessions and matches. Kids learn to power through and persevere even during the bad times, thus becoming more resilient. Practicing perseverance at a young age gives them better coping skills and critical thinking skills to face bigger adversities in the future.

Accept defeat

In sports, just like in life, one cannot win all the time. Playing a sport teaches children this truth early on in life. Therefore, children learn how to accept defeat and lose graciously. They learn how not to get disheartened and to get back up and try again. It also teaches them about healthy competition.

Teamwork

“There’s no I in team”. Children learn that the team cannot win unless they all work together and play to each other’s strengths. They also learn how to become less selfish and not let ego get the best of them. Working together is an important trait in today’s life and learning how to do so early on helps kids become better team players in professional life.

Respect Authority

Following a set of rules, accepting decisions and taking direction is a big part of playing any sport. Through playing a game, children learn how to respect coaches, referees, peers and other elders.

Leadership Skills

Becoming captain or aspiring to become one, naturally teaches children how to become good leaders – how to talk to other teammates, manage team emotions, take one for the team, etc. They also put these skills to use outside the pitch or court making them good leaders that others want to follow.

Lifelong Habits

Sports teaches children to take care of their bodies through proper food choices and stretching. It also instills such fitness habits in them that they carry forward into adulthood, keeping any health problem at bay.

How a game is played matters? Faking injuries, using steroids, altering a bat so it can hit a baseball farther, or purposefully injuring star players all compromise the integrity of competition. Sporting events are not wars, after all, although deep rivalries often exist. Instead, competitions should allow athletes equal opportunity to demonstrate who performs best within an established set of rules.

Problems in sports can arise when teams, managers, or coaches place more value on winning than on how they win. Acting ethically on the playing field—from the sidelines to administrative offices and beyond — should weigh more significantly than who wins or loses.

Sports are played by rules. When athletes, referees, coaches, or administrators attempt to circumvent the rules of the game, they undermine the foundations of sport itself.

The value of sports lies in their ability to do more than identify the best athletes. Sports can instill important values, including respect and teamwork, as well as teach lessons about perseverance and honesty. As far back as ancient Greece, athletics have been seen as an important character-building tool that encourages discipline, collaboration, and responsibility. Sports without ethics do not live up to these values.

In many ways, athletic competitions mimic other aspects of life; its disappointments, victories, and struggles. These experiences can have meaningful implications on people’s behaviors, values, and understanding of themselves and others. For example:

Managing a defeat in a tennis tournament can prepare a person to handle other disappointments.
Supporting a teammate who cannot finish a soccer season because of an injury can build greater empathy in other areas of life.
Battling to make a qualifying time for a swimming event can prepare a person for the rigor required to achieve professional goals.

Strong ethical principles in athletics communicate respect for everyone involved in a sport — the athletes, the fans, the coaches, and so on. Ethical behavior in sports can refer to:

Protecting the health of athletes
Following the rules
Respecting opponents
Demonstrating self-control in the face of frustration or defeat
Taking responsibility for one’s mistakes and not blaming others
Not trying to gain unfair advantages

Ethical behavior in sports can promote ethics-driven behaviors in other areas, such as helping others in need, building trust, respecting dignity, and treating others equally. Additionally, a commitment to ethical behavior can allow athletic programs and athletes at any level to form better connections with their communities.

For example, high school athletic departments that treat all sports programs equally — without showing favoritism to male or female teams or certain sports — foster greater equity and unity in the school community. Conversely, a university athletic program that turns a blind eye to hazing practices against incoming players or falsifies the academic certification of student-athletes will likely breed distrust and disunity within the community.

UNIT-II

Examples include brisk walking, jogging, swimming, and biking. Strength, or resistance training, exercises make your muscles stronger. Some examples are lifting weights and using a resistance band. Balance exercises can make it easier to walk on uneven surfaces and help prevent falls

Maintaining a good level of physical fitness is important. However, it can be difficult to determine what fitness entails.

Experts define physical fitness as “one’s ability to execute daily activities with optimal performance, endurance, and strength with the management of disease, fatigue, and stress and reduced sedentary behavior.”

This description goes beyond being able to run quickly or lift heavy weights. Despite being important, these attributes only address single areas of fitness.

This article provides details of the five main components of physical fitness.

Maintaining good physical fitness can help prevent some conditions.
With exercise, body composition can change without changing weight.
Athletes’ hearts show different changes depending on their chosen sport.
Muscle strength increases due to fiber hypertrophy and neural changes.
Stretching to increase flexibility can ease a number of medical complaints.

Overview

Being physically fit depends on how well a person fulfills each of the components of being healthy.

When it comes to fitness, these components are:

cardiorespiratory fitness
muscular strength
muscular endurance
body composition

Cardiorespiratory performance

Cardiorespiratory endurance indicates how well the body can supply fuel during physical activity via the body’s circulatory and respiratory systems.

Activities that help improve cardiorespiratory endurance are those that cause an elevated heart rate for a sustained period of time.

These activities include:

swimming
brisk walking
jogging
cycling

People who regularly engage in these activities are more likelyTrusted Source to be physically fit in terms of cardiorespiratory endurance. It is important to begin these activities slowly and gradually increase the intensity over time.

Exercising increases cardiorespiratory endurance in a number of ways. For example, the heart muscle becomes stronger so that it is able to pump more blood per heartbeat.

At the same time, additional small arteries grow within muscle tissue so that they can deliver blood to working muscles more effectively when needed.

How does heart health change with exercise?

The heart’s efficiency changes and improves after persistent training. However, recent research suggests that different types of activity change the heart in subtly different ways.

All types of exercise increase the heart’s overall size, but there are significant differencesTrusted Source between endurance athletes such as rowers and strength athletes such as football players.

The hearts of endurance athletes show expanded left and right ventricles, whereas those of strength athletes show thickening of the heart wall, particularly the left ventricle.

How does lung health change with exercise?

Although the heart steadily strengthens over time, the respiratory system does not adjust to the same degree. Lung size does not change, but the lungs do use oxygen more effectivelyTrusted Source.

In general, exercise encourages the body to become more efficient at taking on, distributing, and using oxygen. Over time, this improvement increases endurance and overall health.

Health benefits of cardiorespiratory fitness

Cardiorespiratory fitness can help reduce the riskTrusted Source of conditions including:

Muscular strength

There are a number of ways to measure muscular strength. Generally, lifting a set weight in a prescribed position and comparing the results against any given population is the best way.

In general, if a person works their muscles consistently and regularly, they will increase in strength.

There are various ways of putting the muscles through rigorous activity, but anything that works a muscle until it is tired will increase muscle strength over time.

How does muscle structure change with exercise?

Muscles consist of elongated muscle cells. Each muscle cell containsTrusted Source contractile proteins, called actin and myosin, that give the muscle its strength.

These fibers contract together, producing the so-called power stroke. The total force depends on the number of these units contracting in unison.

To build muscle, an individual must regularly exercise their muscles and take in enough protein.

Scientists do not fully understand the exact mechanism of muscle building, but the general principles are well known. Training causes the muscle cellsTrusted Source to expand, and there is an increase in actin and myosin production.

Also, in untrained muscles, fibers tend to fire in an asynchronous manner. In other words, they do not fire in unison. As a person trains them, however, they learn to fire together as one, thereby increasing maximum power output.

Muscular endurance

Fitness can also include muscular endurance, which is the ability of a muscle to continue exerting force without tiring.

As mentioned above, strength training builds bigger muscles. Endurance training, on the other hand, does not necessarily generate muscles of a larger size.

This is because the body focuses more on the cardiovascular system, ensuring that the muscles receive the oxygenated blood they need to keep functioning.

Another important change in muscles that people specifically train for endurance concerns the different types of muscle tissue: fast twitch and slow twitchTrusted Source fibers.

Fast twitch fibers contract quickly but get tired quickly. They use a lot of energy and are useful for sprints. They are whitish, as they do not require blood to function.

Slow twitch fibers are best for endurance work, as they can carry out tasks without getting tired. They are present in core muscles. These fibers appear red, as they rely on a good supply of oxygenated blood and contain stores of myoglobin.

Different exercises will promote fast twitch fibers, slow twitch fibers, or both. For example, a sprinter will have comparatively more fast twitch fibers, whereas a long distance runner will have more slow twitch fibers.

Body composition

Body composition measures the relative amounts of muscle, bone, water, and fat an individual has.

A person can potentially maintain the same weight but radically change the ratio of each of the components that make up their body.

For instance, people with a high muscle (lean mass) ratio might weigh more than those with the same height and waist circumference who have less muscle.

How is body composition calculated?

There are several methodsTrusted Source for calculating body composition. For example, a doctor can measure a person’s body fat using tools such as calipers or through bioelectrical impedance analysis to detect fat cells.

The above methods are prone to inaccuracies, however.

Flexibility

Flexibility refers to the range of movement across a joint.

Flexibility is important because it improves the ability to link movements together smoothly and can help prevent injuries. It is specific to each joint and depends on a number of variables, including the tightness of ligaments and tendons.

Various activities that stretch the joints, ligaments, and tendons can increase flexibility.

There are three common types of stretches that people use to increase flexibilityTrusted Source:

Dynamic stretching: This refers to the ability to complete a full range of motion in a particular joint. People use this type of stretch in standard warmup exercises, as it helps prepare the body for physical activity.
Static-active stretching: This refers to holding the body or part of the body in a stretched position and maintaining that position for a period of time. One example of static-active stretching is the splits.
Ballistic stretching: People should only engage in ballistic stretching when the body is already warmed up and limber from exercise. It involves stretching in various positions and bouncing.

There are a number of ways to improve flexibility. Having a daily stretching regimen can be the simplest and most efficient way of achieving whole body flexibility.

FLEXIBILITY

Value of fitness at different level of ages

Regular physical activity is one of the most important things people can do to improve their health. Moving more and sitting less have tremendous benefits for everyone, regardless of age, sex, race, ethnicity, or current fitness level.

provides science-based guidance to help people ages 3 years and older improve their health through participation in regular physical activity.

Preschool-Aged Children (3-5 years)

The amount of physical activity children need depends on their age. Children ages 3 through 5 years need to be active throughout the day. Children and adolescents ages 6 through 17 need to be active for 60 minutes every day.

This may sound like a lot, but don’t worry! Children may already be meeting the recommended physical activity levels. You can also see ways to encourage children to participate in activities that are age-appropriate, enjoyable, and offer variety.

Recommendations for Children Ages 3 Through 5 Years

Be physically active throughout the day for growth and development.
Adult caregivers should encourage children to be active when they play.

Recommendations for Children and Adolescents Ages 6 Through 17 Years

60 minutes or more of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity each day.

Aerobic activity: Most of the daily 60 minutes should include activities like walking, running, or anything that makes their hearts beat faster. At least 3 days a week should include vigorous-intensity activities.
Muscle-strengthening: Includes activities like climbing or doing push-ups, at least 3 days per week.
Bone-strengthening: Includes activities such as jumping or running, at least 3 days per week.

Children and Adolescents (6-17 years)

Recommendations for Children Ages 3 Through 5 Years

Be physically active throughout the day for growth and development.
Adult caregivers should encourage children to be active when they play.

Recommendations for Children and Adolescents Ages 6 Through 17 Years

60 minutes or more of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity each day.

Aerobic activity: Most of the daily 60 minutes should include activities like walking, running, or anything that makes their hearts beat faster. At least 3 days a week should include vigorous-intensity activities.
Muscle-strengthening: Includes activities like climbing or doing push-ups, at least 3 days per week.
Bone-strengthening: Includes activities such as jumping or running, at least 3 days per week.

Adults (18-64 years)

Physical activity is anything that gets your body moving. Each week adults need 150 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity and 2 days of muscle strengthening activity, according to the current

We know 150 minutes of physical activity each week sounds like a lot, but you don’t have to do it all at once. It could be 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week. You can spread your activity out during the week and break it up into smaller chunks of time.

Move More and Sit Less

Adults should move more and sit less throughout the day. Some physical activity is better than none. Adults who sit less and do any amount of moderate-to-vigorous intensity physical activity gain some health benefits.

Older Adults (65 years and older)

Physical Activity is Essential to Healthy Aging

As an older adult, regular physical activity is one of the most important things you can do for your health. It can prevent or delay many of the health problems that seem to come with age. It also helps your muscles grow stronger so you can keep doing your day-to-day activities without becoming dependent on others.

Keep in mind, some physical activity is better than none at all. Your health benefits will also increase with the more physical activity that you do.

Adults aged 65 and older need:

At least 150 minutes a week (for example, 30 minutes a day, 5 days a week) of moderate intensity activity such as brisk walking. Or they need 75 minutes a week of vigorous-intensity activity such as hiking, jogging, or running.
At least 2 days a week of activities that strengthen muscles.
Activities to improve balance such as standing on one foot about 3 days a week.

If chronic conditions affect your ability to meet these recommendations, be as physically active as your abilities and conditions allow.

NEED AND IMPORTANCE OF FITNESS IN PRESENT SCENARIO

To put it simply, physical activity and exercise is important for everyone. Children, adolescents, and adults of all ages need regular physical activity. Physical activity promotes good health, and you should stay active throughout all stages of your life regardless of your body type or BMI.

Understanding the benefits of physical fitness and knowing how active you should be can help you maintain good health and improve your overall quality of life. Here are a few benefits of regular physical activity that demonstrate the importance of physical fitness.

Save money

According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, chronic diseases cause 7 out of 10 deaths in the U.S., and treating chronic diseases accounts for 86% of U.S. healthcare costs. While some diseases cannot be prevented, you can reduce your risk for certain disease – such as heart disease and diabetes – through reducing risky behaviors and living a healthy lifestyle.

Making healthy choices, such as engaging in regular physical activity, can reduce your risk for many health issues and complications that can result in expensive medical care.

Increase your life expectancy

Numerous studies have shown that regular physical activity increases life expectancy and reduces the risk of premature mortality. There’s not a magic formula that translates hours of physical activity into hours of life gained, but research suggests that people who are more active tend to be healthier and tend to live longer.

Reduce your risk of injury

Regular exercise and physical activity increase muscle strength, bone density, flexibility, and stability. Physical fitness can reduce your risk for and resilience to accidental injuries, especially as you get older. For example, stronger muscles and better balance mean that you’re less likely to slip and fall, and stronger bones mean that your less likely to suffer bone injuries should you take a tumble.

Improve your quality of life

A sedentary lifestyle and a lack of physical activity can take a toll on a person’s body. Physical inactivity is associated with an increased risk for certain types of cancer, numerous chronic diseases, and mental health issues. Exercise, however, has been shown to improve mood and mental health, and provides numerous health benefits. Of course physical fitness also allows you to do things that you may not otherwise be able to do.

Stay active

Staying active and healthy allows you to do activities that require a certain level of physical fitness. For example, hiking to the top of a mountain is a rewarding experience that instills a sense of accomplishment and provides spectacular scenery, but there are people who cannot experience this due to fitness limitations.

But even walking around the zoo with your family or playing on the playground with your children can be challenging for those who neglect physical activity for extended periods of time. Being active means that it’s easier to stay active as you get older.

Improve your health

There are numerous health advantages to physical fitness. Regular exercise and physical activity promotes strong muscles and bones. It improves respiratory, cardiovascular health, and overall health. Staying active can also help you maintain a healthy weight, reduce your risk for type 2 diabetes, heart disease, and reduce your risk for some cancers.

In other words, staying active is a crucial part of maintaining good health and wellness.

What are gross motor skills?

Gross motor (physical) skills are those which require whole body movement and which involve the large (core stabilising) muscles of the body to perform everyday functions, such as standing and walking, running and jumping, and sitting upright at the table. They also includes eye-hand coordination skills such as ball skills (throwing, catching, kicking) as well as riding a bike or a scooter and swimming.

Why are gross motor skills important?

Gross motor skills are important to enable children to perform every day functions, such as walking and running, playground skills (e.g. climbing) and sporting skills (e.g. catching, throwing and hitting a ball with a bat). However, these are crucial for everyday self care skills like dressing (where you need to be able to stand on one leg to put your leg into a pant leg without falling over) and climbing into and out of a car or even getting into and out of bed.

Gross motor abilities also have an influence on other everyday functions. For example, a child’s ability to maintain appropriate table top posture (upper body support) will affect their ability to participate in fine motor skills (e.g. writing, drawing and cutting) and sitting upright to attend to class instruction, which then impacts on their academic learning. Gross motor skills impact on your endurance to cope with a full day of school (sitting upright at a desk, moving between classrooms, carrying your heavy school bag). They also impacts your ability to navigate your environment (e.g. walking around classroom items such as a desk, up a sloped playground hill or to get on and off a moving escalator). Without fair gross motor skills, a child will struggle with many day to day tasks such as a eating, packing away their toys, and getting onto and off the toilet or potty.

What is the meaning of fine motor skills?

Fine motor skills are activities in which you use the small muscles in your hands and wrists to make precise movements. They're different from gross motor skills like running and jumping, which use larger muscles

Motor development is often broadly divided into gross motor and fine motor skills. Gross motor skills pertain to skills involving large muscle movements, such as independent sitting, crawling, walking, or running. Fine motor skills involve use of smaller muscles, such as grasping, object manipulation, or drawing

Some general examples of fine motor skills are:

Picking up a toy with a pincer grasp.
Turning the pages of a book.
Placing pegs into a pegboard.
Buttoning a top.
Threading beads onto a string.
Drawing.
Writing.

UNIT-III

Code of ethics in IOC

The Olympic parties must use due care and diligence in fulfilling their mission. At all times, they must act with the highest degree of integrity, and particularly when taking decisions, they must act with impartiality, objectivity, independence and professionalism.

PREAMBLE The International Olympic Committee and each of its members and its administration, the National Olympic Committees, the International Federations, the cities taking part in any type of candidature procedures of the IOC, the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games, Olympic Games participants and the Recognised Organisations (hereinafter “the Olympic parties”) restate their commitment to the Olympic Charter and in particular its Fundamental Principles, and reaffirm their loyalty to the Olympic ideal inspired by Pierre de Coubertin. The Olympic parties undertake to disseminate the culture of ethics and integrity within their respective areas of competence and to serve as role models.

Scope of application The Olympic parties undertake to comply and ensure compliance with the IOC Code of Ethics in the following circumstances: • the International Olympic Committee (IOC), each of its members and its administration, and the National Olympic Committees (NOC) and their officials, at all times and in all circumstances; • all Olympic Games participants, throughout each edition of the Olympic Games for which they are accredited; • the International Federations (IFs) and the Recognised Organisations and their officials, in all their relations with the IOC; • the cities and their officials taking part in any type of candidature procedures of the IOC, throughout the procedure in question; and • the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games (OCOGs) and their officials, throughout the existence of each such Committee. The National Olympic Committees, the International Federations, the Recognised Organisations and the Organising Committees for the Olympic Games undertake to adopt, for their internal activities, a code of ethics based on the principles and rules of the IOC Code of Ethics, or in a written declaration to adopt the IOC Code of ethics

A FUNDAMENTAL PRINCIPLES

Article 1 Respect for the universal fundamental ethical principles is the foundation of Olympism. These include: 1.1 Respect for the Olympic spirit, which requires mutual understanding with a spirit of friendship, solidarity and fair play;

1.2 Respect of the principle of the universality and political neutrality of the Olympic Movement;

1.3 Maintaining harmonious relations with state authorities, while respecting the principle of autonomy as set out in the Olympic Charter;

1.4 Respect for international conventions on protecting human rights insofar as they apply to the Olympic Games’ activities and which ensure in particular: – respect for human dignity; – rejection of discrimination of any kind on whatever grounds, be it race, colour, sex, sexual orientation, language, religion, political or other opinion, national or social origin, property, birth or other status; – rejection of all forms of harassment and abuse, be it physical, professional or sexual, and any physical or mental injuries;

1.5 Ensuring the participants’ conditions of safety, well-being and medical care favourable to their physical and mental equilibrium.

B INTEGRITY OF CONDUCT

Article 2 The Olympic parties must use due care and diligence in fulfilling their mission. At all times, they must act with the highest degree of integrity, and particularly when taking decisions, they must act with impartiality, objectivity, independence and professionalism. They must refrain from any act involving fraud or corruption. They must not act in a manner likely to tarnish the reputation of the Olympic Movement. Article 3 The Olympic parties or their representatives must not, directly or indirectly, solicit, accept or offer any form of remuneration or commission, nor any concealed benefit or service of any nature, connected with the Olympic Games. Article 4 Only tokens of consideration or friendship of nominal value, in accordance with prevailing local customs, may be given or accepted by the Olympic or third parties. Such tokens may not lead to the impartiality and integrity of the Olympic parties being called into question. Any other form of token, object or benefit constitutes a gift which may not be accepted, but must be passed on to the organisation of which the beneficiary is a member.

Article 5 For hospitality shown to the Olympic parties, as well as those accompanying them, a sense of measure must be respected.

Article 6 The Olympic parties must refrain from placing themselves in any conflict of interests, and must respect the Rules Concerning Conflicts of Interests Affecting the Behaviour of Olympic Parties. C INTEGRITY OF COMPETITIONS

Article 7 The Olympic parties shall commit to combat all forms of cheating and shall continue to undertake all the necessary measures to ensure the integrity of sports competitions.

Article 8 The Olympic parties must respect the provisions of the World Anti-Doping Code and of the Olympic Movement Code on the Prevention of the Manipulation of Competitions.

Article 9 All forms of participation in, or support for betting related to the Olympic Games, and all forms of promotion of betting related to the Olympic Games are prohibited.

Article 10 Participants in the Olympic Games must not, by any manner whatsoever, manipulate the course or result of a competition, or any part thereof, in a manner contrary to sporting ethics, infringe the principle of fair play or show unsporting conduct. D GOOD GOVERNANCE AND RESOURCES

Article 11 The Basic Universal Principles of Good Governance of the Olympic and Sports Movement, in particular transparency, responsibility and accountability, must be respected by all Olympic parties.

Article 12 The Olympic resources of the Olympic parties must be used only for Olympic purposes.

Article 13

13.1 The income and expenditure of the Olympic parties must be recorded in their accounts in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles. An independent auditor will check these accounts.

13.2 In cases where the IOC gives financial support to Olympic parties: a. the use of these Olympic resources for Olympic purposes must be clearly demonstrated in the accounts; b. the accounts of the Olympic parties may be subjected to auditing by an expert designated by the IOC Executive Board. Article 14 The Olympic parties recognise the significant contribution that broadcasters, sponsors, partners and other supporters make to the development and prestige of the Olympic Games throughout the world. In order to preserve the integrity and neutrality of the various candidature procedures, the support and promotion of any of the candidatures by broadcasters, sponsors, partners and other supporters must be in a form consistent with the rules of sport and the principles defined in the Olympic Charter and the present Code. However, the IOC TOP Sponsors and other IOC marketing partners must refrain from supporting or promoting a candidature within any of the IOC candidature procedures. The broadcasters, sponsors, partners and other supporters must not interfere in the running of sports organisations.

अनुच्छेद 13

E CANDIDATURES

Article 15 The Olympic parties shall respect the integrity of any candidature procedure initiated by the IOC, in order to allow equal access to the promotion of each candidature and the refusal of any risk of conflict of interests. Out of respect for the principle of neutrality of IOC members, no public declaration appearing to give a favourable opinion of one of the candidatures may be made.

Article 16 The Olympic parties will respect the requirements of the various procedures published by the IOC, particularly regarding the selection of Olympic Games host cities, as well as the Rules of Conduct Applicable to All Cities Wishing to Organise the Olympic Games. F CONFIDENTIALITY Article 17 The principle of confidentiality shall be strictly respected by the IOC Ethics Commission in all its activities. It must also be strictly respected by any person concerned by the activities of the IOC Ethics Commission.

G REPORTING OBLIGATION

Article 18 The Olympic parties shall inform the IOC Chief Ethics and Compliance Officer, in the strictest confidentiality and by using the appropriate mechanisms, in particular the IOC Ethics and Compliance Hotline, of any information related to a violation of the IOC Code of Ethics, with a view to possible referral to the IOC Ethics Commission. Any disclosure of information must not be for personal gain or benefit, nor be undertaken maliciously to damage the reputation of any person or organisation. H IMPLEMENTATION Article 19 The IOC Ethics Commission may set out the provisions for the implementation of the present Code in a set of Implementing Provisions, subject to the approval of the IOC Executive Board in accordance with the Bye-law to Rule 22 of the Olympic Charter. Article 20 The IOC Ethics and Compliance Office is available to the IOC Ethics Commission to disseminate and implement the present Code

CODE OF ETHICS IN IOA

1. The Indian Olympic Association, being part of the Olympic movement, undertake to respect provisions of the Olympic Charter, the Olympic movement, the World Anti-Doping Code and to abide by the decisions of the International Olympic Committee.

a. At National Level to participate in events to promote peace and to promote women in sport.

b. To develop, promote and protect the Olympic movement in India in accordance with the Olympic charter.

c. To support and encourage the promotion of sports ethics, to fight against doping and to demonstrate a responsible concern to environmental issues.

2. To promote and encourage the physical, moral and cultural education of the youth of the nation for the development of character, good health and good citizenship.

3. To enforce all rules and regulations of the International Olympic Committee and the Indian Olympic Association and not to indulge in or associate with any activity which is in contradiction with the Olympic Charter.

4. To enforce and defend the exclusive right of the IOC and the Association to the use of the Olympic properties pursuant to the Olympic Charter.

5. To be the official organization in complete and sole charge of all Olympic matters in the country.

6. To educate the public of the country as to the value of sport.

7. In cooperation with National Sports Federations to guard and enforce the applicable rules.

8. To maintain the highest ideals of sport and to promote interest therein, particularly in connection with the Olympic Games and other Games under the patronage of the I.O.C. as well as the I.O.A.

9. To have full and complete jurisdiction over all matters pertaining to the participation of India in the Olympic Games and other Games under the patronage of the IOC as well as the IOA. To participate in the Games of the Olympiad by sending athletes and to constitute, organize and lead its delegation at the Olympic Games and at the regional, continental or world multi-sports competitions patronized by the IOC. It shall also ensure that the members of the delegation shall conduct themselves in a responsible and dignified manner at all such meets.

10. To assist in cooperation with National Sports Federations the selection, training and coaching of the teams that will represent India in the Olympic /Asian /Commonwealth /South Asian Games and other international competitions and tournaments, under the patronage of the I.O.C. as well as I.O.A. After selection of the teams by the National Sports Federation, IOA will supervise and control the participation of the team in the said competitions and tournaments.

11. To undertake with the assistance of National Sports Federations the financing, management, transportation, maintenance and welfare of teams from India taking part in the Olympic Games and other Games under the patronage of the I.O.C. as well as I.O.A.

12. To certify the eligibility of competitors from India for such international competitions as require such certification.

13. To stimulate the interest of the people of the country in the promotion of sports and games in the Olympic programme as well as form the State Olympic Association in newly-formed State/Union Territory.

14. To act as the channel of communication between National Sports Federations and the Government of India for financial or other assistance to the Federations.

15. To admit the membership of State Olympic Associations and National Sports Federations which shall be required to submit their annual reports and audited statement of accounts to the I.O.A. for information, failing which disciplinary action can be taken.

16. To take disciplinary action against any affiliated unit for misbehavior or any other undesirable activity bringing discredit to the country and sport.

17. To do all other things that may be necessary or expedient to promote the development of sports and games in the country and for the conduct of its business.

18. To resist in the realm of sports all pressures of any kind, whether of a political, legal, racial, religious or economic nature.

19. To collaborate with schools and university establishments in India to propagate the fundamental principles of Olympism at National level within the framework of sports activity and also take steps for the diffusion of Olympism in the teaching programmes of Physical Education.

20. To take steps for the creation of National Olympic Academies, Olympic Museums and other cultural institutes related to the Olympic movement.

21. To collaborate and help National Sports Federation, State Olympic Associations and other Sports bodies in the training of the sports administrators for the effective dissemination of sports information in India.

22. To resist and oppose any form of discrimination on grounds of race, religion, legal, politics, gender or otherwise and to resist violence in sport.

23. To lay down guidelines to enforce the World Anti-Doping Code and to fight against the use of substance and procedures prohibited by the International Olympic Committee or the International Federations and to adopt and implement World Anti-Doping Agency Code thereby ensuring that the IOA’s Anti-Doping policies and rules, membership and/or funding requirements and results, management procedures conform with the World Anti-Doping Code and respect all the rules and responsibilities for the National Olympic Committee that are listed within the World Anti-Doping Code.

24. To have full and complete jurisdiction over all matters pertaining to the designation of the city which may apply to organize Olympic Games in India.

CODE OF ETHICS FOR COACHES AND ATHLETES

The National Coaching Foundation has developed the following from the Code of Ethics (1989) published by the British Institute of Sports Coaches (BISC). It also adopts the principles of ithe Council of Europe's Code of Sports Ethics. The BISC Code formed the value statement underpinning the National Vocational Qualification Standards (1992) for Coaching, Teaching and Instructing. This code has replaced the original BISC code, as stated in the revised standards (1998). The code is a framework within which to work and is a series of guidelines rather than instructions.

Introduction

Sports coaches are expected to conform to ethical standards in several areas: humanity, relationships, commitment, cooperation, integrity, advertising, confidentiality, abuse of privilege, safety and competence.

Humanity

Coaches must respect every human being's rights, dignity, and worth and their ultimate right to self-determination. Specifically, coaches must treat everyone equitably and sensitively, within the context of their activity and ability, regardless of gender, ethnic origin, cultural background, sexual orientation, religion or political affiliation.

इंसानियत

Relationship

The right coach will be concerned primarily with the well-being, safety, protection and future of the individual performer. There must be a balance between the development of performance and the individual's social, emotional, intellectual and physical needs.

A key element in a coaching relationship is the development of independence. Performers must be encouraged and guided to accept responsibility for their behaviour and performance in training, competition, domestic, academic, or business life.

Coaches are responsible for setting and monitoring the boundaries between a working relationship and friendship with their performers. This is particularly important when a performer is a young person. The coach must realise that certain situations or friendly words and actions could be misinterpreted, not only by the performer but also by outsiders (or other members of a squad or group of performers) motivated by jealousy, dislike or mistrust, and could lead to allegations of misconduct or impropriety.

Where physical contact between coach and performer is a necessary part of the coaching process, coaches must ensure that no action on their part could be misconstrued and that any National Governing Body (NGB) guidelines on this matter are followed.

The relationship between coach and performer relies heavily on mutual trust and respect. This means that the performer should be aware of the coach's qualifications and experience and must be allowed to consent to or decline proposals for training, performance or competition.

Commitment

Coaches should clarify with performers (and employers) the number of sessions, fees (if any), and payment method. They should explore with performers (and employers) the expectation of coaching. Written contracts may be appropriate in some circumstances.

Coaches are responsible for declaring to their performers and employers any other current coaching commitments. They should also determine if prospective clients receive instruction from another teacher/coach. If so, the teacher/coach should be contacted to discuss the situation.

Coaches who become aware of a conflict between their obligation to their performers and their commitment to their NGB (or other organisations employing them) must make eplicit to all parties concerned the nature of the conflict and the loyalties and responsibilities involved.

Coaches should expect a similar level of reciprocal commitment from their performers. In particular, the performer (parent/guardian in the case of a minor) should inform the coach of any change in circumstances that might affect the coach/performer relationship.

Coaches should receive appropriate acknowledgement for their contribution to the performer's progress and achievement. Where money is earned from performances, it is reasonable to expect the coach should obtain an appropriate share of the rewards. Such apportionment with any attendant conditions should be agreed upon in advance (in writing) to avoid misunderstanding.

Co-operation

Coaches should communicate and co-operate with other sports and allied professions in the best interests of their performers. An example of such contact could be the seeking of:

educational and career counselling for young performers whose involvement in sport impinges upon their studies
sports science advice through the British Association of Sport and Exercise Sciences (BASES)

Coaches must communicate and co-operate with registered medical and ancillary practitioners in diagnosing, treating, and managing their performers' medical and psychological problems.

Integrity

Coaches must not encourage performers to violate the rules of their sport. They should actively seek to discourage and condemn such action and encourage performers to obey the spirit of the rules.

Coaches must not compromise their performers by advocating measures that could constitute an unfair advantage. They must not adopt practices to accelerate performance improvement that might jeopardise the performer's safety, total well-being, and future participation. Coaches must never advocate or condone the use of prohibited drugs or other banned performance-enhancing substances.

Coaches must ensure that the activities, training and competition programs they advocate and direct are appropriate for the individual performer's age, maturity, experience and ability.

Coaches must treat opponents with due respect, both in victory and defeat, and should encourage their performers to act similarly. A coach's key role is to prepare performers to respond to success and failure in a dignified manner.

Coaches must accept responsibility for their performers' conduct and discourage inappropriate behaviour in training, competition, and away from the sporting arena.

Advertising

Advertising by sports coaches regarding qualifications, training and services must be accurate and professionally restrained. Coaches must be able to present evidence of current qualifications upon request. Evidence should also be available to support any claim promoting their services.

Confidentiality

Sports coaches inevitably gather a great deal of personal information about performers during a working relationship. Coach and performer must agree on what is to be regarded as confidential information (i.e. not divulged to a third party without the express approval of the performer).

Confidentiality does not preclude disclosing information about a performer to persons with the right to know. For example:

Evaluation for competitive selection purposes
Recommendations for employment
In pursuit of disciplinary action involving performers within the sport
In pursuit of disciplinary action by a sports organisation against one of its members
Legal and medical requirements for disclosure
Recommendations to parents/family where the health and safety of performers might be at stake
In pursuit of action to protect children from abuse

Abuse of Privilege

The sports coach is privileged to have regular contact with performers, occasionally travel, and reside with performers in coaching and competitive practice. A coach must not attempt to exert undue influence over the performer to obtain personal benefit or reward.

Coaches must consistently display high personal standards and project a favourable image of their sport and coaching to performers, their parents/families, other coaches, officials, spectators, the media and the public.

Personal appearance is a matter of individual taste, but the sports coach must project an image of health, cleanliness and functional efficiency.

Sports coaches should never smoke while coaching.

Coaches should not drink alcohol so soon before coaching that it would affect their competence to coach, compromise the performers' safety, or indicate they had been drinking (e.g. the smell of alcohol on their breath).

Safety

Within the limits of their control, coaches are responsible for ensuring the performers' safety with whom they work.

All reasonable steps should be taken to establish a safe working environment.

The work and how it is done should be in keeping with the regular and approved practice with their sport as determined by the NGB.

The activity undertaken should be suitable for the performers' age, physical and emotional maturity, experience and ability.

Coaches must protect children from harm and abuse.

The performers should have been systematically prepared for the activity and made aware of their safety responsibilities.

Coaches should arrange adequate insurance to cover all aspects of their coaching practice.

Competence

Coaches shall confine themselves to practice in those sports elements for which the appropriate NGB recognises their training and competence. Training includes accumulating knowledge and skills through formal coach education courses, independent research and collecting relevant, verifiable experience.

Competence to coach should be verified through evidence of qualifications. Competence cannot be inferred solely from the evidence of prior experience. The National Occupational Standards for Coaching, Teaching and Instructing (and the approved NGB coaching awards) provide the framework for assessing competence at the different coaching practice levels.

Coaches must recognise when to refer performers to other coaches or agencies. As for as possible, it is their responsibility to verify the competence and integrity of any other person to whom they refer a performer.

Coaches should regularly seek ways of increasing their personal and professional development.

Coaches should welcome evaluation of their work by colleagues and account to performers, employers, National Governing Bodies (NGBs) and colleagues for what they do and why.

Coaches are responsible for themselves and their performers to maintain their effectiveness, resilience and abilities. They should recognise when their resources are so depleted that help is needed. This may necessitate the withdrawal from coaching temporarily or permanently.

CODE OF ETHICES FOR ORGANIZER AND PROMOTORS

As creators of interactive media, we, the members of the International Game Developers Association (IGDA), recognize the importance of the effect of ideas conveyed through art, and especially the effect of ideas presented in an interactive choice-driven format. As professionals we here establish a Code of Ethics with the following objectives:

To promote the growth of our industry and the growth of creative endeavors;
To ensure a professional standard of workplace environment for all development;
To publicly establish and communicate our standards as media professionals.

This Code is divided into three sections: Principles, being basic ideals that all members of the IGDA commit to uphold; Workplace, being standards that all members of the IGDA acknowledge as rights for the facilitation of professional delivery and creativity; and Leadership, being standards for management and leadership of development studios at all levels of the IGDA.

A Code of Ethics is only as strong as the willingness of its members to uphold it. In establishing this Code we commit to a professional standard and as members of the IGDA agree to uphold and enforce it for ourselves and our peers.

Section 1: Principles

As individual developers, we commit that we will:

Promote equal access and opportunity for game developers around the world, without regard to race, gender, creed, age, sexuality, family status, disability, national origin, or other accidental quality; and in analysis, demeanor, and expression shall be alert to the sensitivities of groups and individuals.
Continually strive to increase the recognition and respect of the profession; uphold the integrity of our work and credit contributions where they are due, never representing another's work as our own, or vice versa;
Present ourselves and our skills accurately;
Respect intellectual property rights;
Seek fair rights to ownership of content that we create;
Honor signed legal agreements in spirit and in letter;
Promote proper, responsible, and legal use of computing technology at our disposal;
Strive to create content appropriate for our stated audience, and never misrepresent or hide content from committees assigned to review content for communication to the public, and specifically we will work strenuously to cooperate with and support local/regional ratings boards (the ESRB, PEGI, CERO, USK, etc.).
Strive to share knowledge even while protecting intellectual property, for the growth of our peers as professional craftspeople and our industry;
Strive to promote public knowledge of technology and art, and the strengths of our industry in expanding the boundaries of art and science.
Promote this code of ethics within our companies, with third-party contractors and within the entire profession.

Section 2: Workplace

As professionals committed to excellence in our field, we hold that:

Workplace safety, including physical and mental safety and comfort, is a basic right for every developer;
Discrimination or the tolerance of discrimination of any kind, whether on the basis of race, gender, creed, age, sexuality, family status, disability, or national origin, harms us as professionals, limits our craft, and violates this Code;
For the integrity of ourselves as professionals and as a professional organization, we will be aware of and adhere to all local laws in the region in which we operate, unless there is an overwhelming ethical conflict in so doing;
Fair treatment for developers at all levels, whether full time, part time, temporary, or student employees, is required for our operation at a professional standard.
Harassment of any kind, whether in a professional engagement or within the larger game development community, violates this Code and will not be tolerated;
Game developers deserve fair and full protection from their employer against all forms of harassment, including harassment by a colleague, by a community member, or by another party;

Section 3: Leadership

As leaders in our professional field, we commit that we will:

Understand that an informed and physically healthy workforce benefits game development on ethical, creative, and business levels comprehensively;
Be forthright in communicating information pertinent to the talent that we lead, and will never knowingly deceive those whom we lead;
Adhere to fair schedules and contracts, never committing to delivering more than we can reasonably achieve while maintaining standards of workplace quality of life;
Ensure that all employment agreements are fair and legal;
Provide for the health of our employees to the best of our abilities;
Uphold trust between ourselves and those we lead by ensuring confidentiality of legal documentation and private information;
Promote the growth of our industry by supporting the exchange of knowledge and ideas between developers, for our mutual benefit;
Provide for the future of our developers and our industry by providing support for families and future developers, and acknowledge and respect the value of our veteran talent;
Not engage in harassment of any kind, including unwanted physical contact, or verbal or emotional abuse (both online and in person), nor tolerate those who do.
Ensure to the best of our ability the mental and physical well-being of those whom we lead, maintaining highest standards of workplace quality of life.

UNIT-IV

Sports participation of women in India

For women’s sports participation, we look at the ancient period. Regarding participation in the first modern Olympics (1896 Athens), there was no participation of women. -- Women participated for the first time in the 1900 Olympics. (22 women participated ) -- In 1904, six women participated. -- And after 100 years, in the 2000 Sydney Olympics, 4069 women participated. -- In the 2008 Beijing Olympics, 4637 women participated. Participation in India -- In 2000, Karnam Malleshwari was the first woman who wins a bronze medal in Sydney Olympics from India. -- In 1984 performance of P.T. Usha was very good in Athletics. -- In the 2012 London Olympics, Saina Nehwal and M.C. Mericom got the bronze medal. In the 2016 Rio Olympics, Sakshi Malik won the bronze medal, P.V. Sandhu won the silver medal, and Deepa Karmakar opened new dimensions in gymnastics. Over the past several decades, the participation of women in sports in the sports field has increased tremendously. But really, it is a matter of regret for all of us to know that sports are such a field where gender inequality is strongly evident. The general social environment has inhibited women from participating in sports and criticized them when they participate. Many people comment about women “Why don’t they stay in the kitchen where they belong”? But Now the time has changed. Women are capable of changing society. Now the ideology suggests that women participate in every sphere of life and prooving themselves globally.

Physical Obstacles

Physical obstacles refer to the morphological features adaptations. Failure in physical fitness parameters results in the reduction of sports performance. ∙ Limbs heaviness ∙ Abdomen heaviness ∙ Pelvic heaviness ∙ Inappropriate posture, and Flat foot

Physical Constraints

Physical constraints refer to the morphological feature adaptations to particular sports. It refers to the qualities of the sportsperson, such as the physical fitness parameters. If there is a failure in any of these required parameters results in a reduction in sports performance.

Physiological Obstacles

Physiological obstacles refer to organ functions. If there is any dysfunction of the organs, it results in the reduction of sports performance. ∙ Low RBC and Haemoglobin level ∙ Weak heart ∙ Weak lungs ∙ Disorder of the endocrine system and Menstrual disorders ∙High-fat percentage

Physiological Constraints

Physiological constraints refer to the organ functions that ultimately result in system coordination. If there is any dysfunction of the organs resulting in a reduction in sports performance

Psychological Obstacles

Psychological obstacles include the behavioral process. Failure in the behavioral process results in poor sports performance. ∙High-level anxiety and aggression ∙ Less self-confidence ∙ Lack of motivation and interest ∙ Low self-esteem

Psychological Constraints

Psychological constraints comprise the behavioral process. In which the body and mind coordinate produces the desirous behavior, failure alternately reduces sports performance.

Social Obstacles

Social obstacles refer to the behavior during training and competition. The relationship with coaches, referees, teammates, opponents, and other officials is not good during competition. It affects the performance and, ultimately, the participation also. ∙ Safety of women. ( ragging, traffic pull & raping} ∙ Unsafe transportation. ∙ Lack of support and encouragement from the family ∙ Myths like girls should not play sports.

Social Constraints

Social constraints refer to the behavior in the sports society if there is any undue relationship or misbehaving during this period, especially a love affair results in a reduction in sports performance or, ultimately, termination from sports participation.

Religious Obstacles

Some religion is rigorous to women and afraid of blame by society for going beyond the boundaries of their faith. This might be the leading cause that most women cannot show their talent in sports.

Economic Obstacles

Whenever the family has financial problems, and they have to choose either the need for a son or a daughter, the main person always prefers the need a son. Economic Obstacles are considered the most important factor in women's sports participation.

In India, we don’t have the sponsoring authority for women's teams, resulting in the non-availability of coaches, expert trainers, and insufficient infrastructure.

Sports Participation of Women in India

Reasons for the low rate of sports participation by women in India

1. Gender equity & social attitude
a. No parental encouragement
b. Traditional society
c. Less motivation and inspiration
d. Women constraining other women

. Lack of plans and initiatives for sportswomen by the Government
a. Male-dominant culture
b. Less availability of women coaches
c. No independent games facilities for women
d. More emphasis on the study
e. Less competition

3. Economic Factors
4. Social Customs and Rights
5. Low Health Consciousness
6. Stress on Academics
7. Media Coverage

8. Lack of Incentives & Career

Special consideration

Menarche is the first menstrual bleeding of a young girl (9-16 yrs.)

Menstrual dysfunction

Menstrual dysfunction is a disorder or irregular menstrual cycle in women. It can also be defined as “Abnormal bleeding during the menstrual cycle.”

Factors/related problems

1. Absence of menstrual periods:- This problem may be due to an eating disorder, excessive exercise schedule, extreme stress levels, medications, etc.

2. Premenstrual syndrome:- Many girls may have symptoms such as acne, backaches, Sore breasts, headaches, constipation, depression, irritability and feeling of anxiety, etc.

Females may face these symptoms before their menstruation.

3. Abnormal Cramps:- These cramps are caused by a chemical in the body that makes the muscles in the uterus contract.

Heavy or prolonged periods:- It is common for a girl’s menstrual period to be heavier on some days than others.

5. Irregular menstrual period:- The regular menstrual cycle for a female is 28 days. However, it may vary from 21 to 35 days.

6. Delay in the first menstrual period.

6.2 Special consideration (Menarche, Menstrual, Dysfunction, Pregnancy, Menopause)

1. Menarche:- “It is the first natural cycle and is a central event of female puberty.”

2. Menstrual dysfunction:- Women's pain and irregular menstrual cycle are on the rise with the decreasing involvement of women in physical fitness and endurance sports.

Female athlete triad is a syndrome in which eating disorders, osteoporosis, and amenorrhea, eating disorders affect adversely on the body.

1. Osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder in which a reduction in bone mass may cause a fracture.

Causes

a. Insufficient calcium in the diet.

b. Amenorrhoea

c. Eating disorder

d. Bad eating habits

Osteoporosis:- Low bone mass.

2. Amenorrhea refers to the absence of menstrual periods. It may be either primary meaning woman has never developed menstrual periods) or secondary (absence of

menstrual periods in a woman who was previously menstruating). Many reasons responsible for amenorrhea include extensive exercise and improper diet. Exercising intensively and not consuming enough calories can lead to decreases in hormones, resulting in a girl’s irregular periods or stopping altogether.

Amenorrhoea:- Absence of menstrual period for more than 6 months.

Anemia:- Resulting from inadequate nutrition.

Eating disorders

Anorexia nervosa

In this eating disorder, the female athlete only thinks about food, dieting, and body weight all the time. They have distorted body structures. Other individuals usually feel they are becoming thin, but they do not believe this. In front of the mirror, they see themselves as obese.

Bulimia nervosa

In this eating disorder, the female eats an excessive amount of food and then vomits it in order not to gain weight. In this disorder, an individual binges on food and loses control. Then to prevent weight gain, try to vomit the food.

6.4 Psychological aspects of women athlete

1. More goal-oriented
2. Psychological stronger
3. Less aggressive
4. Fast adaptation
5. Image conscious
6. Poise & confidence

Sociological aspects of women athlete

1. Family – Family is a significant social factor, generally responsible for early sports socialization. The socializing process at home for both sexes is different. Males usually get more support and encouragement to get involved in sports activities. They are further provided with more facilities to encourage and support participation in sports and games. However, females usually are not encouraged to get involved in sports activities.

2. School – The sports culture is generated in schools, and the school’s reputation depends on the success of males and females as sports personalities. Many schools do not have girl teams as male teams (soccer/ wrestling/boxing etc/). They do not have proper arrangements for coaches and sports facilities for females.

3. Culture – Cultural beliefs have a great impact on the involvement of females in sports. Participation in sports masculinizes females and is viewed negatively. Many cultures still firmly believe that women’s place is in the kitchen.

4. Attitude and prejudices – Attitudes and prejudices of society play a significant role in sports participation; some females avoid certain sports for fear of being perceived as masculine. Such attitudes and prejudices of society regarding sexuality inhibit females from participating.

5. Religious faith discourages woman’s participation in sports
6. Illiteracy in society
7. Biological inferiority
8. Male dominance
9. Lesser concentration on developing woman’s sports equipment & facilities
10. Less competitive spectators for woman’s sports

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